1951 in spaceflight
![]() Viking 7 before its 7 August 1951 launch | |
Rockets | |
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Maiden flights | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
Retirements | ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() |
The year 1951 saw extensive exploration of space by the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR) using suborbital rockets. The Soviets launched their first series of biomedical tests to the 100-kilometre (62 mi) boundary of space (as defined by the World Air Sports Federation).[1] Several American agencies launched more than a dozen scientific sounding rocket flights between them. The US Navy launched its Viking sounding rocket for the seventh time since 1949, this time to a record-breaking 136 miles (219 km) in August 1951.
Development also continued by both superpowers on rockets more powerful than the World War Two era German V-2 that had inaugurated the age of spaceflight. The USSR advanced far beyond their R-1 (a V-2 copy) with the deployment of the R-2 rocket, which could carry a ton of explosives twice as far as its predecessor. Though the ambitious Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile was canceled in 1951, the more achievable R-5 missile project was initiated. Both the US Air Force and the US Army initiated their first post-V-2 ballistic missile projects, Atlas for the former and Redstone for the latter.
Space exploration[edit]
United States[edit]
The US Army, US Air Force, and the Applied Physics Laboratory continued their use of Aerobee on a variety of physics, aeronomy, photography, weather, and biomedical sounding rocket flights; a total of 11 were launched during the year.[2] Two of these comprised the earliest space biomedical missions. Launched by the Air Force, and carrying mice and monkeys, they (along with a third flight in 1952) determined that brief (approx. 15 minutes) exposure to acceleration, reduced gravity, and high altitude cosmic radiation did not have significant negative effects.[3]
The first generation of US Navy-built Viking sounding rockets reached its acme of performance with the flight of Viking 7, the sole Viking launch of 1951. Launched 7 August from White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, the rocket set a new world altitude record of 136 miles (219 km).[4]: 167–171, 236
Soviet Union[edit]
The R-1, the Soviet Union's first domestically built long-range ballistic missile, was accepted into service in November 1950. In January 1951, cold-weather testing of the R-1 for quality assurance purposes was conducted.[5]: 149, 152 On 1 June, production of the R-1 was centralized and transferred to a former automobile factory in Dnepropetrovsk, and that month,[6] a test series of R-1s was successfully launched to the edge of space, all landing within 5.5 kilometres (3.4 mi) of their targets. Though the R-1, a virtual copy of the now-obsolete V-2,[5]: 119 was not a particularly formidable weapon and posed virtually no threat to the West, it was invaluable in training engineers and missile crews, as well as creating a nascent rocket industry in the Soviet Union.[5]: 152–3
On 29 January 1951, dogs were carried on one of the winter test flights of the R-1.[2] This was followed in the summer by six R-1s specifically designed and equipped for biomedical flights to determine if their payload dogs could survive the rigors of space travel and be recovered. Three of the missions were successful.[7]
The R-2 missile, the first operational Soviet design to have a separable nose cone, underwent a second test series of thirteen flights in July 1951, experiencing one failure. Accepted for operational service on 27 November 1951,[8] the design had a range of 600 kilometres (370 mi), twice that of the R-1, while maintaining a similar payload of around 1,000 kilograms (2,200 lb).[5]: 48–9
Spacecraft development[edit]
US Air Force[edit]
By 1950, the war-head carrying ballistic missile, which in the United States had been eclipsed since World War II by guided missile development, received national priority. In January 1951, the US Air Force's Air Research and Development Command awarded to Consolidated Vultee the contract for Atlas, the nation's first Intercontinental ballistic missile.[9]: 59–61 The Atlas went on to become one of the key boosters in America's crewed and robotic space programs,[10]: 32–39 first orbiting a payload (SCORE) in 1958.[9]: 153, 161–2
US Army[edit]
On 15 April 1950, Wernher von Braun and his team of German rocket engineers were transferred from Fort Bliss to Redstone Arsenal in Alabama. In 1951, the Redstone team was tasked with researching and developing guided missiles and developing and testing free rockets, solid propellants, Jet-Assisted Take-off rockets, and related items, thus making the Army a leading player in America's missile development.[11] Their work led to the production of the Redstone missile, first launched in 1953,[12] versions of which ultimately launched Explorer 1, America's first artificial satellite, in 1958, and Mercury-Redstone 3, America's first human space mission, in 1961.[13]
[edit]
In the summer of 1950, the United States Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) team led by Milton Rosen began work on an improved Viking rocket able to reach higher altitudes. The team would achieve increased performance through larger fuel tanks and reduced weight elsewhere on the rocket. Originally planned for launch in 1951, the development of the second generation Viking took two years, and the first of the new rockets would not launch until 6 June 1952.[4]: 172–3, 236
University of Iowa[edit]
In January 1951, Dr. James Van Allen, instrumental in the development of the Aerobee rocket, joined the physics department at the State University of Iowa (SUI). Along with University of Chicago graduate Melvin B. Gottlieb and Van Allen's first SUI graduate student, Leslie H. Meredith, they began a high altitude cosmic ray research program using equipment mounted on balloons. Launched from 16 June 1951, through 26 January 1952,[14]: 7–10 this experience set the foundation for balloon-launched sounding rockets, which would first breach the boundary of space in 1954.[14]: 38
Soviet Union[edit]
From 1947, the German émigré-designed G-1 (or R-10) missile competed with the Soviet-designed R-2 for limited engineering and production staff, the latter winning out by the end of 1949. With the project stalled for a lack of resources and government interest, the Soviets terminated all work by the German specialists in October 1950. In December 1951, the first of the specialists were repatriated to East Germany (a process that the Soviets completed in November 1953).[5]: 69–70
The draft plan for the ambitious 3,000-kilometre (1,900 mi) range R-3 had been approved on 7 December 1949,[5]: 67 but was canceled on 20 October 1951, other designs proving more useful and achievable.[5]: 275–6 One of them was the R-5 missile, able to carry the same payload as the R-1 and R-2 but over a distance of 1,200 kilometres (750 mi)[5]: 242 (the other being the R-11, a tactical missile half the size of the R-1 but with the same payload).[15] The R-5's conceptual design was completed by 30 October 1951.[16]: 97
Launches[edit]
January[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
18 January 20:14 |
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V-2 No. 54 | ![]() |
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NRL | Suborbital | Cosmic Radiation / Solar UV / Solar X-Ray | 18 January | Launch failure | |||
Project Hermes launch, Apogee: 1.61 kilometres (1.00 mi), very low thrust[17][18]: 446–447 | |||||||
22 January 22:55 |
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A19 | ![]() |
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APL | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 22 January | Successful | |||
Apogee: 89 kilometres (55 mi)[18]: 287–288 | |||||||
25 January 15:00 |
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A20 | ![]() |
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APL | Suborbital | Ozone Aeronomy | 25 January | Successful | |||
Apogee: 90 kilometres (56 mi)[18]: 289–290 | |||||||
29 January | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 29 January | Successful | |||
Carried dogs[2] | |||||||
30 January | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 30 January | Successful[2] | |||
31 January | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 31 January | Successful[2] |
February[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
1 February | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 1 February | Successful[2] | |||
2 February | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 2 February | Successful[2] | |||
6 February 17:20 |
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A21 | ![]() |
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APL | Suborbital | Photography | 6 February | Successful | |||
Apogee: 98 kilometres (61 mi)[18]: 291–292 |
March[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
9 March 03:16 |
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V-2 No. 57 | ![]() |
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Air Materiel Command | Suborbital | Solar X-Ray / Aeronomy / Ionospheric / Airglow | 9 March | Launch failure | ||
Project Hermes launch, apogee: 3.1 kilometres (1.9 mi), explosions starting at 15.5 seconds destroyed the tail section[17][18]: 452–453 | |||||||
28 March 23:14 |
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USAF 10 | ![]() |
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AFCRL | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 28 March | Successful | |||
Apogee: 66 kilometres (41 mi)[18]: 64–65 |
April[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
12 April 17:26 |
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USAF 11 | ![]() |
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AFCRL / University of Colorado | Suborbital | Solar UV | 12 April | Partial failure | |||
Apogee: 29 kilometres (18 mi), premature engine cutoff at 30.6 seconds[18]: 66–67 | |||||||
18 April 18:39 |
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USAF 12 | ![]() |
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AFCRL / WADC Aero-Medical Laboratory | Suborbital | Biological | 18 April | Successful | ||
First biomedical Aerobee mission, carried monkey;[19] apogee: 61 kilometres (38 mi)[18]: 68–69 |
May[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
29 May 19:46 |
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USAF 13 | ![]() |
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AFCRL / Boston University | Suborbital | Ionospheric | 29 May | Launch failure | |||
Apogee: 3.7 kilometres (2.3 mi)[18]: 70–71 |
June[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
8 June 00:11 |
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USAF 14 | ![]() |
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AFCRL | Suborbital | Solar X-Ray / Aeronomy | 8 June | Successful | |||
Apogee: 89 kilometres (55 mi)[18]: 72–73 | |||||||
8 June 01:18 |
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SC 19 | ![]() |
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USASC / University of Michigan | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 8 June | Launch failure | |||
Apogee: 6.4 kilometres (4.0 mi), full burn but very low thrust[18]: 224–225 | |||||||
9 June 06:11 |
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SC 18 | ![]() |
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USASC | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 9 June | Successful | ||
Apogee: 66.8 kilometres (41.5 mi)[18]: 221–223 | |||||||
13 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 13 June | Successful[2] | |||
14 June 13:48 |
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V-2 No. 55 | ![]() |
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NRL | Suborbital | Cosmic Radiation / Solar UV / Solar X-Ray | 14 June | Launch failure | |||
Project Hermes launch, apogee: 0 kilometres (0 mi), rocket exploded at ignition[17][18]: 449 | |||||||
14 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 14 June | Successful[2] | |||
18 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 18 June | Successful[2] | |||
19 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 19 June | Successful[2] | |||
20 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 20 June | Successful[2] | |||
22 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 22 June | Successful[2] | |||
23 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 23 June | Successful[2] | |||
24 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 24 June | Successful[2] | |||
25 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 25 June | Successful[2] | |||
26 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 26 June | Successful[2] | |||
27 June | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 27 June | Successful[2] | |||
28 June 21:43 |
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V-2 No. 52 | ![]() |
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Air Materiel Command | Suborbital | Solar UV / Solar X-Ray / Ionospheric / Photography / Aeronomy / Biological | 28 June | Launch failure | ||
Final project Hermes launch, apogee: 5.8 kilometres (3.6 mi), explosion in tail section at 8 seconds, cutoff triggered at 22 seconds[17][18]: 441–443 |
July[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
2 July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 2 July | ||||
First of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Second of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Third of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Fourth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Fifth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Sixth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Seventh of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Eighth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Ninth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Tenth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Eleventh of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | Same day | ||||
Twelfth of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
22 July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Biological | 22 July | Successful | |||
Maiden flight of the R-1V;[2] first ever space dog mission carried dogs Dezik and Zhegan which were recovered.[20]: 21 | |||||||
25 July 16:26 |
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USAF 15 | ![]() |
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AFCRC | Suborbital | Sky Brightness | 25 July | Successful | |||
Apogee: 71.3 kilometres (44.3 mi)[18]: 74–75 | |||||||
27 July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Missile test | 27 July | ||||
Last of thirteen launches, 12 of which hit the target area.[16]: 97 | |||||||
29 July | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Biological | 29 July | Launch failure | |||
Maiden flight of the R-1B; electrical failure, no payload recovery; carried dogs did not survive[2] |
August[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
7 August 16:36 |
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USAF 16 | ![]() |
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AFCRC / Boston University | Suborbital | Ionospheric | 7 August | Successful | |||
Apogee: 83.5 kilometres (51.9 mi)[18]: 76–77 | |||||||
7 August 18:00 |
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NRL | Suborbital | Cosmic Radiation / Solar X-Ray / Aeronomy | 7 August | Successful | ||
Final flight of the first model Viking, apogee: 219 kilometres (136 mi)[18]: 492–493 | |||||||
15 August | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Solar UV / Biological | 15 August | Successful | |||
Carried dogs, recovered[2] | |||||||
19 August | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Biological | 19 August | Successful | |||
Final flight of the R-1V; carried dogs, recovered[2] | |||||||
22 August 19:00 |
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TF-1 | ![]() |
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US Army | Suborbital | Altitude test | 22 August | Successful | |||
First all Army team after General Electric's contract concluded; apogee: 213.4 kilometres (132.6 mi)[18]: 463 | |||||||
28 August | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Biological | 28 August | Successful[2] | |||
30 August 22:40 |
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USAF 17 | ![]() |
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AFCRC | Suborbital | Rocket test | 30 August | Successful | |||
Maiden (and only) flight of the RTV-A-1b, apogee: 76 kilometres (47 mi)[18]: 78–79 |
September[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
3 September | ![]() |
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OKB-1 | Suborbital | Biological | 3 September | Successful | |||
Final flight of the R-1B; carried dogs, recovered[2] | |||||||
13 September 11:37 |
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USAF 18 | ![]() |
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AFCRC / University of Michigan | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 13 September | Successful | |||
Apogee: 76 kilometres (47 mi)[18]: 80–81 | |||||||
20 September 16:31 |
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USAF 19 | ![]() |
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AFCRC / WADC Aero-Medical Laboratory | Suborbital | Biological | 20 September | Successful | ||
Carried monkey, Yorick/Albert VI, and 11 mice, all recovered;[19] apogee: 71 kilometres (44 mi)[18]: 82–83 | |||||||
27 September 00:06 |
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SC 21 | ![]() |
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USASC / University of Michigan | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 27 September | Successful | |||
Apogee: 68.9 kilometres (42.8 mi)[18]: 229–230 |
October[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
17 October 18:17 |
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USAF 20 | ![]() |
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AFCRC / Boston University | Suborbital | Ionospheric | 17 October | Successful | |||
Apogee: 114.3 kilometres (71.0 mi), maiden flight of the RTV-A-1a[18]: 84 | |||||||
29 October 21:04 |
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V-2 No. 60 | ![]() |
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USASC / University of Michigan | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 29 October | Successful | |||
Apogee: 141.0 kilometres (87.6 mi)[18]: 458–459 |
November[edit]
Date and time (UTC) | Rocket | Flight number | Launch site | LSP | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Payload | Operator | Orbit | Function | Decay (UTC) | Outcome | ||
Remarks | |||||||
1 November 09:46 |
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SC 20 | ![]() |
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USASC | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 1 November | Successful | ||
Apogee: 66.3 kilometres (41.2 mi)[18]: 226–227 | |||||||
3 November 00:35 |
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SC 22 | ![]() |
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USASC | Suborbital | Aeronomy | 3 November | Successful | ||
Apogee: 82 kilometres (51 mi)[18]: 231–232 |
Suborbital launch summary[edit]
By country[edit]
Country | Launches | Successes | Failures | Partial failures | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
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26 | 19 | 6 | 1 | |
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35 | 33 | 1 | 1 |
By rocket[edit]
Rocket | Country | Launches | Successes | Failures | Partial failures |
Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
V-2 | ![]() |
6 | 2 | 4 | 0 | |
Viking (first model) | ![]() |
1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Retired |
Aerobee RTV-N-10 | ![]() |
3 | 3 | 0 | 0 | |
Aerobee XASR-SC-1 | ![]() |
5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | |
Aerobee RTV-A-1 | ![]() |
9 | 7 | 1 | 1 | |
Aerobee RTV-A-1b | ![]() |
1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Maiden flight, retired |
Aerobee RTV-A-1a | ![]() |
1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | Maiden flight |
R-1 | ![]() |
16 | 16 | 0 | 0 | |
R-1V | ![]() |
2 | 2 | 0 | 0 | Maiden flight, retired |
R-1B | ![]() |
4 | 3 | 1 | 0 | Maiden flight, retired |
R-2 | ![]() |
13 | 12 | 0 | 1 |
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- Bergin, Chris. "NASASpaceFlight.com".
- Clark, Stephen. "Spaceflight Now".
- Kelso, T.S. "Satellite Catalog (SATCAT)". CelesTrak.
- Krebs, Gunter. "Chronology of Space Launches".
- Kyle, Ed. "Space Launch Report". Archived from the original on 5 October 2009. Retrieved 13 August 2022.
- McDowell, Jonathan. "Jonathan's Space Report".
- Pietrobon, Steven. "Steven Pietrobon's Space Archive".
- Wade, Mark. "Encyclopedia Astronautica".
- Webb, Brian. "Southwest Space Archive".
- Zak, Anatoly. "Russian Space Web".
- "ISS Calendar". Spaceflight 101.
- "NSSDCA Master Catalog". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.
- "Space Calendar". NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
- "Space Information Center". JAXA.
- "Хроника освоения космоса" [Chronicle of space exploration]. CosmoWorld (in Russian).
Footnotes[edit]
- ^ Paul Voosen (24 July 2018). "Outer space may have just gotten a bit closer". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aau8822. S2CID 126154837. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Mark Wade. "1951 Chronology". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 28 December 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Wayne O. Mattson; Martyn D. Tagg (June 1995). We Develop Missiles not Air! (PDF). Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico: Legacy Resource Management Program, Air Combat Command USAF. pp. 45–52. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 February 2021.
- ^ a b Milton W. Rosen (1955). The Viking Rocket Story. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 317524549.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Boris Chertok (June 2006). Rockets and People, Volume II: Creating a Rocket Industry. Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 946818748.
- ^ Mark Wade. "R-1". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 6 December 2020.
- ^ Chris Gebhardt (20 September 2016). "Aerobee-19: 65 years after animal flight that paved the way for Project Mercury". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ Mark Wade. "R-2". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2020.
- ^ a b John L. Chapman (1960). Atlas The Story of a Missile. New York: Harper & Brothers. OCLC 492591218.
- ^ Will Eisner (1962). America's Space Vehicles A pictorial review. London: Oak Tree Press, Ltd. OCLC 916575496.
- ^ "Installation History 1950 - 1952". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ^ "Installation History 1953 - 1955". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ^ "Redstone Missile". US Army Aviation and Missile Life Cycle Management Command. 2017. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
- ^ a b George Ludwig (2011). Opening Space Research. Washington D.C.: geopress. OCLC 845256256.
- ^ Mark Wade. "R-11". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 9 March 2002. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Asif A. Siddiqi. Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974 (PDF). Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 1001823253. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 18 December 2020.
- ^ a b c d L. D. White (September 1952). Final Report, Project Hermes V-2 Missile Program. Schnectady, New York: Guided Missile Department, Aeronautic and Ordnance Systems Division, Defense Products Group, General Electric. p. Table I.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Charles P. Smith Jr. (April 1958). Naval Research Laboratory Report No. 4276: Upper Atmosphere Research Report No. XXI, Summary of Upper Atmosphere Rocket Research Firings (pdf). Washington D.C.: Naval Research Laboratory. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
- ^ a b Mark Wade. "Aerobee". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 20 August 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2020.
- ^ Brian Harvey; Olga Zakutnyaya (2011). Russian Space Probes: Scientific Discoveries and Future Missions. Chichester,UK: Springer Praxis Books. OCLC 1316077842.